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Aksumite currency

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Ancient History,
Classical History and Mythology

   5th century gold coin of King Ebana.
   Enlarge
   5th century gold coin of King Ebana.

   Aksumite currency was the only native currency to be issued in Africa
   without direct influence by an outside culture like the Romans or
   Greeks, e.g. it was issued and circulated from the middle of the height
   of the Kingdom under King Endubis around AD 270 until it began its
   decline in the first half of the 7th century. No sub-Saharan state
   would mint coins after Aksum until the Kilwa sultanate in the tenth
   century.

   Aksum's currency served as a vessel of propaganda demonstrating the
   kingdom's wealth and promoting the national religion (first
   polytheistic and later Oriental Christianity), as well as facilitating
   the Red Sea trade on which it thrived. The coinage has also proved
   invaluable in providing a reliable chronology of Aksumite kings due to
   the lack of extensive archaeological work in the area.

Influences

   Though Aksumite coins are indigenous in design and creation, some
   outside influences encouraging the use of coins is undeniable. By the
   time coins were first minted in Aksum, there was widespread trade with
   Romans on the Red sea; Kushana or Persian influence also cannot be
   ruled out. Roman, Himyarite, and Kushana coins have all been found in
   major Aksumite cities, however, only very small quantities have been
   attested and the circulation of foreign currency seems to have been
   limited. Though South Arabian kingdoms had also minted coins, they had
   already gone out of use by the time of certain Aksumite involvement in
   South Arabia under GDRT, and only very rarely produced electrum or gold
   denominations ( silver mainly in Saba' and Himyar, while bronze in
   Hadhramaut), making influence unlikely. The major impetus, however, was
   not emulation but economical; the Red sea and its coasts had always
   been an international trade area and coins would greatly facilitate
   trade and wealth in the now "world power." Despite these influences,
   the coins were of genuinely indigenous design, and foreign influences
   were relatively weak and few in number.

Pre-Christian period

   Aksumite currency came in the later stages of the growth of the empire
   when its golden age had already begun. The minting of coins began
   around 270, beginning with the reign of Endubis.

Value

   Though the gold coins were certainly the most valuable issue, followed
   by the silver one, the exact relationship between the three issues
   (gold, silver, and bronze) is not known. The supply of gold was closely
   controlled by the Aksumite state, as noted by Cosmas Indicopleustes,
   and other precious metals were undoubtedly also closely controlled,
   allowing the Aksumite state to ensure the usage of its currency.

   The quality of the Aksumite coins were also closely controlled, usually
   of high purity. For example, the lowest purity of gold recorded thus
   far for Aphilas is 90%. Early issues were often very close to their
   theoretical weights, and some were even over.) However, the weight of
   the coins tended to decrease over time (though not continuously or
   uniformly). This may have reflected a desire to conform to the
   Diocletian monetary reform of 312, when the aureus was decreased from
   1/60th of a pound to 1/72nd. Despite decreases in weight, the purity of
   the gold was largely maintained, even by later kings. The abundance of
   relative abundant Aksumite coins as well as the many that have yet to
   be found indicate that Aksum must have had access to large quantities
   of gold.

Design

   Sketch of gold coin of Wazeba using the Ge'ez script and language.
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   Sketch of gold coin of Wazeba using the Ge'ez script and language.

   The coins were often inscribed in Greek, as much of its trade was with
   the "Graecised Orient." Later inscriptions would make more use of
   Ge'ez, the language of the Aksumites, perhaps indicating a decline in
   its use for more international trade (i.e. with Rome and India). The
   obverse of the coins would always feature an image of the king (almost
   always in profile) wearing either a crown or helmet/regnal headcloth.
   The headcloth had some image perhaps representing pleats, rays, or
   sunburst in the front, as well as the tied end of a cloth or fillet to
   hold the helmet or headcloth in place. Most coins also included an
   inscription (usually in Greek) meaning "King of Aksum" or King of the
   Aksumites" (Basileus AXWMITW). However, many coins were also minted
   anonymously (or even posthumously), especially during the 5th century.
   Inscriptions on the coins could include a bisi name ("man of," Ge'ez
   bə'əsyä ብእስየ) or an epithet (beginning with Əllä, Ge'ez እለ "he who") in
   addition to the king's personal name. Bisi names were used more often
   in conjuncture with personal names on earlier coins, while the epithets
   were more common in later years, being the only inscribed name in a few
   sources. Greek text was used in conjunction with Ge'ez inscriptions,
   but was the only language used on the gold coins, with the exception of
   the Ge'ez language coins of Wazeba and MHDYS. Over time, the Greek used
   on the coins (gold, silver and bronze) deteriorated, indicative of
   Aksum's decline. Moreover, beginning with MHDYS for bronze coins and
   Wazeba for silver coins, Ge'ez gradually replaced Greek on the legends.

Mottoes

   Aksumite coins used a number of mottos throughout the period in which
   they were minted, beginning in the early 4th century. Around this time,
   numerous anonymous bronze coins with simply Βασιλεύς (Basileus, "King")
   on the obverse were minted by either King Ezana or one of his
   successors. The coins bore the first example of an Aksumite motto on
   the reverse, "May this please the people" ( Greek TOYTOAPECHTHXWPA). It
   was later written in unvocalized Ge'ez as ለሐዘበ ፡ ዘየደአ LʾḤZB ZYDʾ and
   under King Kaleb also ለሀገረ ፡ ዘየደአ LHGR ZYDʾ, "may this please the city
   [country]."

Endubis

   Gold coin of King Endubis with royal headcloth/helmet, grains, and Star
   and crescent representing the moon god Ilumqah.
   Enlarge
   Gold coin of King Endubis with royal headcloth/helmet, grains, and Star
   and crescent representing the moon god Ilumqah.

   Endubis, the first known Aksumite king to mint coins, focused almost
   entirely on his image on both the obverse and reverse. The images were
   of his head and upper half of his chest in profile, wearing a regnal
   headcloth or helmet and abundant jewelry. In addition to inscribing his
   regnal name, Endubis also noted his "bisi name, a practice continued by
   his early successors, but often missing in later coins. The bisi name
   was a sort of tribal affiliation or "ethnikon" (i.e. a reference to the
   king's lineage) that was different for every king. Endubis also
   emphasized his religion through the pre-Christian symbol of the disk
   and cresent as a propaganda method (a purpose which the coins already
   served). A second motif used by Endubis and continued by following
   coins was that of two (though sometimes one in later years) ears of
   barley or wheat around the image of his head in profile. Though no
   inscriptional evidence exists, given its prominent position around the
   image of the king, the two ears of barley (or wheat) may have been
   representative symbols of the Aksumite state. Though later coins would
   be smaller, Endubis chose the Roman aureus to standardize Aksumite coin
   weights against, with gold issues at half-aureus around 2.70 grams
   (more precisely, the theoretical weight may have been 2.725g).

Aphilas

   Gold coin of King Aphilas with royal tiara and features inherited from
   Endubis; the coin was pierced for use as jewellery and is typical of
   Aksumite gold coins found in India.
   Enlarge
   Gold coin of King Aphilas with royal tiara and features inherited from
   Endubis; the coin was pierced for use as jewellery and is typical of
   Aksumite gold coins found in India.

   Whereas all of Endubis's coins feature the king with a headcloth or
   helmet, Aphilas's coins show the king wearing an impressive high crown
   on top of the headcloth. The crown featured colonnades of arches
   supporting high spikes, on top of which rested large discs of
   unidentified composition. In addition to the crown and headcloth,
   Aphilas's coins included further images of regalia, such as a spear, a
   branch with berries, the depiction of the arms, the addition of tassels
   with fringes to the imperial robe, and more jewelry, such as amulets
   and bracelets. Despite this innovation, Aphilas continued to use the
   image of himself in the regnal headcloth in some coins, sometimes as
   the reverse, while his crowned image is only found on the obverse.

   One of his issues included his frontal image on the obverse, which
   ended with his reign and was only revived by the late kings. Two other
   minting features of Aphilas were also abandoned by later rulers. One of
   these was the use of just the inscription "King Aphilas" as the reverse
   of a coin, the only purely epigraphical side ever used on an Aksumite
   coin. The other was his use of a single ear of barely or wheat as a
   reverse, though his use of two ears circling around the king's image
   continued.

   Aphilas introduced a number of different standards for all three
   metals, some of which lasted through to the 7th century, while the use
   of others ended with his reign. His new gold coins (issued in
   conjunction with the older) of a quarter aureus and eighth aureus were
   soon abandoned (each are known from only one specimen), and 1/16th
   aureus coins have been found, though these are more likely to be
   deliberate debasements to increase profit (Aksumite gold was generally
   very pure, however). Aphilas's silver coin, however, issued at half the
   weight of the former, became the new Aksumite standard for silver up
   until the end of coinage. The older coin was presumably more valuable
   than needed, and the new coin remedied the problem. Aphilas's bronze
   issue, however, was instead doubled to 4.83 grams. The coin's rarity
   may attest to its quick withdrawal from the market, as is assumed with
   his quarter-aureus. These two issues are the only one of Aphilas's
   issues to portray him frontally, rather than in profile.

Ezana

   Anonymous bronze coin with Christian cross on reverse.
   Enlarge
   Anonymous bronze coin with Christian cross on reverse.

   During Ezana's reign a major change in both the Aksumite kingdom and
   its coinage took place as a result of the change of the official
   religion to Christianity, one of the first states ever to do so. While
   Ezana's coins in the first half of his reign are almost identical to
   thos of Aphilas, barring minimal weight reductions, those of his second
   half employ revolutionary designs. With his conversion to Christianity,
   Ezana began to feature the Cross on his coins, the first time the
   Christian cross had ever been featured in coinage in the world. Some of
   his gold Christian coins are of the weight before Constantine's weight
   reform in 324, indicating a conversion before this date or perhaps a
   few years after, as the Aksumite coinage may not have changed weights
   immediately. Along with the adoption of the Cross on his coins came, of
   course, the abandonment of the star and crescent symbol on the coins.
   Later Christian coins reflect the adoptment of the 4.54 g standard by
   Constantine, with theoretical weights in Aksumite coins likewise
   dropping to 1.70 g for the gold coins.
   Silver coin of King Ousanas with no religious symbol.
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   Silver coin of King Ousanas with no religious symbol.

   Coins of Ezana without any symbol at all have also been found, along
   with similar symboless coins of his father, Ousanas. These may reflect
   a transition in the religion in Aksum when Frumentius was influencing
   Ezana's father and gathering Christians in the country, giving weight
   to the writings of Rufinus. The lack of symbol altogether may reflect
   an uncertainty as how best to exhibit the change in religion of the
   Aksumite state.
   Gold coin of King Israel.
   Enlarge
   Gold coin of King Israel.

Weight standards

Gold coins

   The gold coin weighed on average 2.5-2.8 grams and was 15-21 mm in
   diameter at the start of issue, in 270- 300. This would make it half an
   Aureus which weighed 4.62-6.51 grams at the time of Probus. The issue
   of Israel ( 570- 600) weighed 1.5 grams and was 17 mm in diameter. The
   Roman solidus of Maurice Tiberius was 4.36-4.47 grams. A majority of
   these coins were found in South Arabia and not Aksum. The name is
   unknown so it is referred to as an AU Unit.
   Silver coin of King MHDYS (vocalized Mehadeyis) with cross.
   Enlarge
   Silver coin of King MHDYS (vocalized Mehadeyis) with cross.

Silver coinage

   Also starting with Endubis these coins were 2.11-2.5 grams in weight
   which is half the weight of a Roman antoninianus of 3.5-4.5 grams. A
   Denarius in the early 3rd century was 2.5-3.00 grams of 52% or less of
   silver, but the Aksum coins were almost pure silver at first later
   debased. The name is unknown so it is referred to as an AR Unit.
   Coin of King Armah seated on throne.
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   Coin of King Armah seated on throne.

Base coinage

   Most bronze and silver coins have mainly been found in Aksum territory
   with very few pieces found in Judea, Meroe and Egypt. They are based
   roughlty on the size of older roman As and Sestertius in shape and
   thickness. The design also developed like Roman coins in first being
   good but then the pictures turn archaic and non recognisable. The name
   is unknown so it is referred to as a AE diameter im mm Unit, like AE17
   for a coin of 17 mm.
   Coin of King Ousanas with two holes, typical of Aksumite gold coins
   found in India.
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   Coin of King Ousanas with two holes, typical of Aksumite gold coins
   found in India.

Trade

   At the time of Aksum's minting of currency, the state already had a
   long trade history with Greece, Rome, the Persian Empire, and India.
   That coinage began so late is in fact a little surprising. The late use
   of coinage may be attributed to the lack of a developed economy,
   required for coinage to be accepted. Most Aksumite coins were found in
   the large trade centres with very few in remote villages, where trade
   would be more through barter and not coinage based. In fact, the
   motivation for Aksum's initial minting of coins was for foreign trade
   and markets, as evidenced by the use of Greek on most of its coins.
   Moreover, gold coins seem to have been intended primarily for external
   trade, while copper and silver coins probably mainly circulated within
   the Aksumite empire, as the gold issues generally specified "king of
   the Aksumites" as title of the Aksumite king, whereas the title of
   silver and copper issues generally only read "king." International use
   of Aksumite coins seems to have begun early on, as coins of King Ezana
   and even of King Aphilas (the second Aksumite ruler to issue coins)
   have been found in India.

Decline

   During the 7th century, Aksumite power began to fail, and Ethiopian
   society began to withdraw further into the highland hinterlands, with
   the coastal areas becoming peripheral areas (whereas Adulis on the
   coast was once the second city of Aksum). The coins continued
   circulation, but were restricted to more local areas such as Nubia,
   South Arabia and the Horn of Africa.

Archaeology

   Due to the nature of the coins (e.g. providing kings' names), they have
   proved essential in constructing a chronology of the Kings of Aksum. An
   estimated 98% of the city of Aksum remains unexcavated, and other areas
   even more so. Through analysis of the number of coins produced and the
   style of coins, archaeologists have been able to construct a rough
   chronology, generally agreed upon until the late 6th and 7th century
   kings. Of the 20 Aksumite Kings attested by their coins, inscriptions
   corroborate the existence of only two, who happen to be the most famous
   kings: Ezana and Kaleb, both of whose reigns were periods of
   exceptional prosperity during the height of the Aksumite kingdom.

   Many coins have been found in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, the
   central region of Aksum, though Aksumite coins are reported to have
   been found in Arato and Lalibela. Many coins have been also found
   further afield. Numerous hoards of coins (always gold save one silver
   coin) have been found in Southern Arabia, much more than in Aksum
   itself, attesting perhaps to an Aksumite presence in parts of the
   region (perhaps supporting the use of titles claiming control over
   parts of South Arabia from GDRT's time). The hoards may be the remnants
   of hoards left in Kaleb's time (perhaps used to pay soldiers), when it
   was under an Aksumite governor. Outside of the Horn of Africa and
   Arabian peninsula, coins have been found as far as Israel, Meroe,
   Egypt, and India. Silver and copper coins are mainly found in Aksum,
   though some can be traced to Palestinian pilgrim centers.

   In addition to historical evidence, the coins' use of Ge'ez provides
   valuable linguistic information. Though rarely used, the vocalization
   of Ge'ez sometimes employed on Aksumite coins allows linguists to
   analyze vowel changes and shifts that cannot be represented in the
   older Semitic abjads such as Hebrew, Arabic, South Arabian, and
   earlier, unvocalized Ge'ez.
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