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Akbar

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   CAPTION: Akbar

   Birth name:     Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar
   Family name:    Timurid
   Title:          Emperor of Mughal Empire
   Birth:          October 15, 1542
   Place of birth: Umarkot, Sindh
   Death:          October 27, 1605
   Succeeded by:   Jahangir
   Marriage:

                   Jodhabai (?) or Jodhi Bibi
                   Mariam-uz-Zamani
                   Ruqayya Sultan Begum
                   Sakina Banu Begum
                   Salima Sultan Begum
   Children:

                   Jahangir, son
                   Shah Murad, son
                   Danyal, son
                   Shahzada Khanim, daughter
                   Shakarunnisa Begum, daughter
                   Aram Banu Begum, daughter
                   Ximini Begum, daughter

   Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Persian: جلال الدین محمد اکبر), (alternate
   spellings: Jellaladin, Celalettin) also known as Akbar the Great
   (Akbar-e-Azam) ( October 15, 1542 – October 27, 1605) was the son of
   Nasiruddin Humayun whom he succeeded as ruler of the Mughal Empire from
   1556 to 1605.

   Though only 13 when he ascended to the throne, he is widely considered
   the greatest of the Mughal emperors. During his reign, he eliminated
   external military threats from the Afghan descendants of Sher Shah (an
   Afghan who was able to temporarily oust Humayun from 1540-1555), and at
   the Second Battle of Panipat defeated the Hindu leader Hemu. In
   addition to his military gains, the emperor solidified his rule by
   repealing the jizya tax on non-Muslims and courting the favour of the
   powerful Rajput caste, to the extent of marrying Rajput princesses.

   However, Akbar's most lasting contributions were to the arts and to
   Indian religion. He initiated a large collection of literature,
   including the Akbar-nama and the Ain-i-Akbari, and incorporated art
   from around the world into the Mughal collections. He also commissioned
   the building of widely admired buildings, including the Panj Mahal.
   Having a greatly tolerant attitude toward religion, Akbar preserved
   Hindu temples. He also began a series of religious debates where Muslim
   scholars would debate religious matters with Sikhs, Hindus, Carvaka
   atheists and even Jesuits from the Vatican. He founded his own
   religion, the "Din-i-Elahi" or the "Divine Faith"; the religion,
   however, amounted only to a form of personality cult for Akbar, and
   quickly dissolved after his death.

Early Years

   Akbar was born on October 15, 1542, at the Rajput Fortress of Umarkot
   in Sind where the Mughal Emperor Humayun and his recently wedded wife,
   Hamida Banu Begum were taking refuge. In 1540, Humayun had been driven
   into exile, following decisive battles, by the Afghan leader Sher Shah.
   Akbar did not go to Persia with his parents, and was raised for a time
   instead by his uncle Askari and his wife in the rugged country of
   Afghanistan rather than in the splendor of the Persian court. He spent
   his youth learning to hunt, run and fight, but he never learned to read
   or write, the sole exception in Babur's line. Nonetheless, Akbar
   matured into a well-informed ruler, with refined tastes in the arts,
   architecture and music, a love for literature, and a breadth of vision
   that tolerated other opinions.

   Following the chaos over the succession of Islam Shah (Sher Shah's
   son), Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partly
   provided by his Persian ally Shah Tahmasp. Only a few months later,
   Humayun died from an accident. Akbar succeeded his father on February
   14, 1556, while in the midst of a war against Sikandar Shah for the
   reclamation of the Mughal throne. Here, in Kalanaur the 13 year old
   Akbar donned a golden robe and Dark Tiara and sat on a newly
   constructed platform, which still stands , and was proclaimed
   "Shahanshah" ( Persian for "King of Kings")

Early Conquests

   Early into Akbar's career, he decided that he should eliminate the
   threat of Sher Shah's dynasty, and decided to lead an army against the
   strongest of the three, Sikandar Shah Suri, in the Punjab. He left the
   city of Delhi under the regency of Tardi Beg Khan.

   Sikandar Shah Suri presented no major concern for Akbar, and often
   withdrew from territory as Akbar approached; however, back in Delhi
   Hemu, a low- caste Hindu warrior, succeeded in launching a surprise
   attack on the unprepared Tardi Beg Khan, who promptly fled the city.
   Hemu, who had launched the attack on behalf of Adil Shah Suri, one of
   Sikandar's brothers, had won 22 successive battles and appointed
   himself ruler, or Raja Vikramaditya, instead Adil Shah.

   Word of the capitulation of Delhi spread quickly to the new Mughal
   ruler, and he was advised to withdraw to Kabul, which was relatively
   secure. However, Bairam Khan differed and urged Akbar to fight the
   invaders and reclaim the capital. Akbar sided with Bairam, and began to
   march on Delhi. In order to bolster troop morale, Akbar took the
   curious step of ordering that someone "prepare fireworks as a treat for
   the soldiers" and that one should "make an image of Hemu, fill it with
   gunpowder, and set it on fire". On the march forward, he was joined by
   Tardi Beg and his retreating troops, who also urged him to retreat to
   Kabul, but Akbar refused again; later, Bairam Khan had the former
   regent executed for cowardice, though Abul Fazl and Jahangir both
   record that they believed that Bairam Khan was merely using the retreat
   from Kabul as an excuse to eliminate a rival.

   On November 5, 1556 Akbar's Mughal army defeated the numerically
   superior forces of General Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat, fifty
   miles north of Delhi, thanks to a chance arrow into Hemu's eye. Hemu
   was brought before Akbar unconscious, and was beheaded. Some sources
   say that it was actually Bairam Khan who killed the man, but Akbar
   certainly did use the term " Ghazi", warrior for the faith, a term used
   by both Babur, his grandfather, and Timur when fighting the Kafir
   (non-Muslims) in India. Hemu's head was sent to Kabul while his body
   was displayed on a type of gallows specially constructed to display
   this dead body. Even more gruesomely Akbar followed an old Khanate
   tradition, one which pre-dates even Genghis Khan, and constructed a
   "victory pillar" made from the heads of the dead soldiers.

   The victory also left Akbar with over 1,500 war elephants which he used
   to re-engage Sikandar Shah at the siege of Mankot. Sikandar surrendered
   and so was spared death, and lived the last remaining two years of his
   life on a large estate granted to him by Akbar. In 1557 the only other
   threat to Akbars rule, Adil Shah, brother of Sikandar, died during a
   battle in Bengal. Thus, by the time Akbar was 15 his rule over
   Hindustan was secured.

Bairam Khan

   Akbar was only 13 years old when he became emperor, and so his general
   ruled on his behalf till he came of age. The regency belonged to Bairam
   Khan, a Shia Turkoman noble who successfully dealt with pretenders to
   the throne and improved the discipline of the Mughal armies. He ensured
   power was centralised and was able to expand the empires boundaries
   with orders from the capital. These moves helped to consolidate Mughal
   power in the newly recovered empire.

   Respect for Bairam's regency was not, however, universal. There were
   many people plotting his demise in order to assume the apparent
   absolute rule they saw in him. Much was written, critically, of his
   religion. The majority of the early court were Sunni Muslims, and
   Bairam's Shia'ism was disliked. Bairam knew about this, and perhaps
   even to spite that, appointed a Shia Sheikh, Gadai to become the
   Administrator General, one of the more important roles in the empire.
   Further Bairam lived a rather opulent lifestyle, which appeared to be
   even more excessive than that of Akbar.

   The most serious of those opposed to Bairam was Maham Anga, Akbar's
   aunt, chief nurse and mother of his foster brother, Adham Khan. Maham
   was both shrewd and manipulative and hoped to rule herself by proxy
   through her son. In March 1560 the pair of them urged Akbar to visit
   them in Delhi, leaving Bairam in the capital, Agra. While in Delhi
   Akbar was bombarded by people who told him he was now ready to take
   full control of the empire and to dismiss Bairam. He was persuaded to
   fund an excursion for Bairam to go on Hajj to Mecca, which was to act,
   essentially, as a form of ostracism. Bairam was shocked at the news
   from Delhi, but was loyal to Akbar, and despite Akbars refusal to even
   meet with the General, refused the suggestions by some of his
   commanders to march on Delhi and "rescue" Akbar.

   Bairam left for Mecca, but was quickly met by an army sent by Adham
   Khan, but approved by Akbar, which was sent to "escort" him from the
   Mughal territories. Bairam saw this as the last straw, and led an
   attack on the army, but was captured and sent as a rebel back to Akbar
   to be sentenced. Bairam Khan, whose military genius had seen the
   Mughals regain their lands in India, who had served both Humayun and
   Akbar loyally, and laid the foundation for a strong empire, was now
   before the emperor as a prisoner. Maham Anga urged Akbar to execute
   Bairam, but Akbar refused. Instead, in defiance of Anga, he laid down
   full honours to the General, and gave him robes of honour, and agreed
   to fund him a proper Hajj excursion. However, shortly after Bairam
   Khan's Hajj journey got underway, just before he reached the port city
   of Khambhat (then known as "Cambay") he encountered an Afghan whose
   father had been killed five years earlier in a battle led by Bairam.
   The Afgan saw a chance to reap vengeance, and promptly stabbed Bairam,
   who died on January 31, 1561.

Adham Khan and Maham Anga

   With the demise of Bairam Khan, Maham Anga saw an opportunity for
   herself, and attempted to wrest the control that Bairam had. Her
   attempts at absolute rule, however, were not particularly successful.

   In February 1561, her son Adham was sent to capture Malwa, which was
   being incompetently ruled by Baz Bahadur. Baz Bahadur was a talented
   musician but had no ability to govern an area, and many of the people
   of the area had fled to Mughal territories, alerting the Mughals to the
   possibility of taking the area. As the army of Adham Khan approached
   Baz Bahadur fled, leaving behind his wealth and his wives in their
   Harem, and instructions that they were to be killed if the city of
   Sarangpur (now a part of the Rajgarh District) fell to the Mughals.
   However, despite the best attempts by the Eunuch in charge of the
   Harem, many of the women survived; even Rupmati, who was famed through
   many of Baz Bahadurs songs for her beauty, survived multiple slash
   wounds to be captured by the invading Mughals. However, when Adham Khan
   came to claim his prize, Rupmati drank poison rather than be raped by
   Akbar's brother.
   Akbar as a boy around 1557
   Enlarge
   Akbar as a boy around 1557

   However, aside from this instance when he was thwarted, Adham engaged
   in some thoroughly grotesque abuses of the captured Harem and populace.
   The least attractive members of the women were brought before the
   senior members of the invading army and killed, as they drank alcohol,
   took opium pellets, and generally treated the event as if it were a
   festive occasion. Badauni records that on at least one occasion members
   present tried to stop the slaughter but were shackled. The slaughter
   was not only of the women in the harem, and Badauni records that
   "Sayyids and Sheikhs came out to meet him with their Qur'ans in hand,
   but Khan put them all to death and burnt them". Besides, Adham kept the
   vast majority of the wealth and captives for himself and sent a mere
   three elephants to his Emperor. Along with the elephants, Akbar
   received word of what Adham had done, and became enraged. He decided to
   ride out to Malwar himself, along with a small band of loyal soldiers,
   racing and beating a group of courtiers sent by Maham Anga to warn
   Adham of Akbar's rage.

   Adham became terrified and quickly begged for Akbar's forgiveness.
   Akbar forgave him, and received the booty he had seized. However, Adham
   secretly kept two of the women he decided were the most attractive in
   his own Harem. When Akbar found out about this, Maham Anga killed the
   women, fearing what they might reveal about Adham to Akbar.

   These events left Akbar with no option but to begin assuming absolute
   control for himself. The conflict came to a head when in 1562, Atkah
   Khan, an Afghan appointed by Akbar to be the equivalent of Prime
   Minister, was dealing with affairs of his position when Adham burst
   forth, had Atkah Khan stabbed, and tried to storm the Harem of Akbar.
   The Eunuch who guarded the section went in, closed the door and locked
   it from the inside. Akbar became aware of the disturbance, and entered
   the room. Here Adham laid his hand on his foster brother's arm, a sign
   of apparent disrespect, to which Akbar responded by punching him in the
   face, possibly knocking him unconscious. Seeing his Prime Minister
   stabbed, Akbar had had enough of Adham and ordered that he be thrown
   from a height, over a parapet. This failed to kill him, so Akbar
   ensured that the second attempt succeed by ordering he be dropped head
   first. Akbar then went straight to Maham Anga and informed her that her
   son was dead. With this act, the 19 year old Akbar assumed complete
   control over his empire.

Restoration

   While previous Muslim rulers, in particular the Mughal founder Babur,
   allowed freedom of worship for Hindus and other religious groups, Akbar
   engaged in a policy of actively encouraging members of the varying
   religious groups to enter his government. In one instance, he persuaded
   the Kacchwaha Rajput rulers of Amber (modern day Jaipur) into a
   matrimonial alliance: The King of Amber's daughter, Hira Kunwari,
   became Akbar's queen. She took the name Jodhabai, and was the mother of
   Prince Salim, who later became the Mughal emperor Jahangir. Further,
   while other Muslim rulers had married Hindu wives, he was the first one
   to allow to fully practise their religion, not just without hindrance
   but with everything they needed in that regard. During his reign more
   than in any other Mughal ruler's, Hindus were employed in the Civil
   Service. He also married a Christian woman from Goa, Maryam.

   The other Rajput kingdoms also gave their daughters' hands to Akbar,
   until only two Rajput clans remained against him, the Sisodiyas of
   Mewar and Hadas ( Chauhans) of Ranthambore. The Rajputs were a famed
   group of Hindu warriors, who, like the Afghans took opium prior to
   battle to ward off fear. Entering into an alliance with these groups
   helped to secure Akbar's control, as for the next 100 years Rajput
   soldiers served on behalf of the Mughal empire.

   Finally Raja Man Singh of Amber went with Akbar to meet the Hada
   leader, Surjan Hada, to effect an alliance. Surjan grudgingly accepted
   an alliance on the condition that Akbar did not marry any of his
   daughters. Surjan later moved his residence to Banaras.

   Akbar is recorded as saying "A monarch should be ever intent on
   conquest, lest his neighbours rise in arms against him", and he went on
   to expand the Mughal empire to include Malwa (1562), Gujarat (1572),
   Bengal (1574), Kabul (1581), Kashmir (1586), and Kandesh (1601), among
   others. Akbar installed a governor over each of the conquered
   provinces, under his authority.

   Akbar did not want to have his court tied too closely to the city of
   Delhi. He ordered the court moved to Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, but
   when this site proved untenable, he set up a roaming camp that let him
   keep a close eye on what was happening throughout the empire. He
   developed and encouraged commerce, in part by abolishing religious
   restrictions on the conduct of business between Muslims and Hindus.

   Akbar's tax reforms were an especially noteworthy achievement, and
   formed the basis of the Mughal Empire's immense wealth in succeeding
   generations. His officials prepared a detailed and accurate cadaster
   (land register) noting each land parcel's soil quality, water access,
   etc., and then converted those characteristics to money, taking account
   of the different prevailing prices for various crops in each region of
   the Empire. This was a distinct improvement on earlier land tax
   systems, including the Egyptian and Roman ones, which had levied land
   taxes as an in-kind share of the harvest. By making land tax payments
   more accurately reflect the economic rent of the land in money rather
   than the actual harvest, Akbar's innovations had the effect of
   stimulating both investment in improvements and more productive use of
   the land. He also abolished the jizyah (a discriminatory tax on
   non-Muslims) and gave strict orders to prevent extortion by tax
   collectors. The salutary economic effect of these reforms was such that
   the revered Qing emperor Kang Xi adopted similar measures a century
   later in China, with similar success.

Personality

   Akbar is said to have been a benevolent and wise ruler, a man of new
   ideas, and a sound judge of character. As a ruler, he was able to win
   the love and reverence of his subjects.
   The court of Akbar, an illustration from Akbarnama
   Enlarge
   The court of Akbar, an illustration from Akbarnama

   Abul Fazal, and even the hostile critic Badayuni, described him as
   having a commanding personality. He was fearless in the chase as well
   as in the field of battle, and, "like Alexander of Macedon, was always
   ready to risk his life, regardless of political consequences". He often
   plunged his horse into the full-flooded river during the rainy seasons
   and safely crossed over to the other side. Though a mighty conqueror,
   he did not usually indulge in cruelty. He is said to have been
   affectionate towards his relatives. He pardoned his brother Hakim, who
   was a repented rebel. However, on some rare occasions, he dealt cruelly
   with the offenders, as is shown by his behaviour towards his maternal
   uncle, Muazzam, and his foster-brother, Adam Khan.

   He is said to have been extremely moderate in his diet. According to
   records, he was fond of fruits and had little liking for meat, which he
   ceased to eat altogether in his later years.

Views on religion

   At the time of Akbar's rule, the Mughal Empire included both Hindus and
   Muslims. Profound differences separate the Islamic and Hindu faith.
   When Akbar commenced his rule, a majority of the subjects in the Mughal
   Empire were Hindu. However, the rulers of the empire were almost
   exclusively Muslim. In this highly polarized society, Akbar fostered
   tolerance for all religions. He not only appointed Hindus to high
   posts, but also tried to remove all distinctions between the Muslims
   and non-Muslims. He abolished the pilgrim tax in the eighth year and
   the jizya in the ninth year of his reign, and inaugurated a policy of
   universal toleration. He also enjoyed a good relationship with the
   Roman Catholic Church, who routinely sent Jesuit priests to debate in
   his court, and at least three of his Grandsons were baptized as
   Catholics (though they did become Muslim later in life).

   Akbar built a building called Ibadat Khana (House of Worship), where he
   encouraged religious debate. Originally, this debating house was open
   only to Sunnis, but following a series of petty squabbles which turned
   ugly, Akbar encouraged Hindus, Roman Catholics and even atheists to
   participate. He tried to reconcile the differences of both religions by
   creating a new faith called the Din-i-Ilahi ("Faith of the Divine"),
   which incorporated both 'pantheistic' versions of Islamic Sufism (most
   notably the Ibn Arabi's doctrine of 'Wahdat al Wajood' or Unity of
   existence) and 'bhakti' or devotional cults of Hinduism. Even some
   elements of Christianity - like crosses, Zoroastrianism- fire worship
   and Jainism were amalgamated in the new religion. Akbar the Great was
   particularly famed for this. Akbar was greatly influenced by the
   teachings of JainAcharyaHir Vijay Suri and Jin Chandra Suri. Akbar gave
   up non-vegetarian food by their influence.Akbar declared "Amari" or
   non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jains like Paryushan and
   Mahavir Jayanti. He rolled back Zazia Tax from Jain Pilgrim places like
   Palitana. This faith, however, was not for the masses. In fact, the
   only "converts" to this new religion were the upper nobility of Akbar's
   court. Historians have so far been able to identify only 18 members of
   this new religion.

   He also married several Hindu princesses, though many consider that to
   be politically motivated rather than a genuine attempt at religious
   reconciliation.

   His moves from Islam, while welcomed by the Hindu majority, were not
   appreciated by the Muslim faithful. Rumours were rife that Mosques were
   being closed and destroyed, that those who entered his Harem were
   required to say "There is no God but Allah, and Akbar is his messenger"
   a bastardised version of the traditional Muslim Shahada, or declaration
   of faith. When Akbar opened a wine shop, it was believed he also
   ordered pigs blood to be mixed with the mixture. Many members of the
   ulema began to protest his actions, and Ahmad Sarhindi (who had been
   nick-named "Mujaddid" or "Renovator" [of islam]) wrote tracts rejecting
   the Shirk that he believed Akbar was guilty of. He was to be arrested
   by Jahangir upon his successon. Ultimately, despite Akbar's attempts at
   reconciling the two major faiths, by the end of the 16th century
   community relations would be worse than when Akbar ascended to power.

   Akbar passed decrees against child marriage and sati.

Patron of arts and literature

   Although Akbar was illiterate, he had a fine literary taste. He took
   interest in philosophy, theology, history, and politics. He maintained
   a library full of books on various subjects, and was fond of the
   society of scholars, poets and philosophers, who read books to him
   aloud, and thus enabled him to be conversant with Sufi, Christian,
   Zoroastrian, Hindu and Jain literature. He used to invite scholars from
   different religions for discussions with him. In his book, "Akbar, The
   Great Mogul" Vincent Smith wrote that "anybody who heard him arguing
   with acuteness and lucidity on a subject of debate would have credited
   him with wide literary knowledge and profound erudition and never would
   have suspected him of illiteracy". He was a patron to many literary
   figures, including the brothers Feizi and Abul-Fazel. The former was
   commissioned by Akbar to translate a number of Sanskrit scientific
   works into Persian; and the latter produced the Akbarnama, an enduring
   record of the emperor's reign. It is also said that Akbar employed
   Jerome Xavier (nephew of Francis Xavier) , a Jesuit missionary, to
   translate the four Gospels of the New Testament into Persian. He
   commissioned the Tarikh-i-Alfi, or "The History of a Thousand Years" to
   celebrate the year 1000 (1591-92CE) on the Muslim calendar, though only
   about thirty of the original hundreds of paintings and pages of the
   manuscript now remain.

   Akbar also possessed a fair taste of art, architecture and mechanical
   works. Many pieces, including the magnificent Hamzanama, were produced
   under Akbar. Akbar is also credited with many inventions and
   improvements in the manufacture of matchlocks. He built a vast
   administrative machinery on a detailed plan. He looked, as we know from
   the Ain-i-Akbari, "upon the smallest details as mirrors capable of
   reflecting a comprehensive outline.

Navratnas

   As with many Indian rulers Akbar's court had Navaratnas ("Nine
   Jewels"), a term denoting a group of nine extraordinary people. Akbar's
   Navratnas were:
     * Abul-Fazel - Akbars's chief advisor and author of Akbarnama, the
       official history of Akbar's reign.
     * Faizi Akbar's poet laureate who is best known for his Nal u Daman,
       a poetic rendering of the beloved story of Sanskrit story of Nala
       and Damayanti.
     * Mian Tansen - a Hindu singer much beloved by Akbar who even called
       for him on his death bed
     * Birbal - a high noble known for great wit
     * Raja Todar Mal - Akbar's finance minister
     * Raja Man Singh - trusted general of Akbar's
     * Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana - an important noble and a renowned poet
       in Persian, Sanskrit, and Hindustani.
     * Fakir Aziao-Din
     * Mullah Do Piaza

Final years

   The last few years of Akbar's reign were troubled by the misconduct of
   his sons. Two of them died in their youth, the victims of intemperance.
   The third, Salim, later known as Emperor Jahangir, was frequently in
   rebellion against his father. Asirgarh, a fort in the Deccan, proved to
   be the last conquest of Akbar, taken in 1599 as he proceeded north to
   face his son's rebellion. Reportedly, Akbar keenly felt these
   calamities, and they may even have affected his health and hastened his
   death, which occurred in Agra. His body was interned in a magnificent
   mausoleum at Sikandra, near Agra.
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